On the antiquity of papal supremacy


Date: March 6th, 2025


Introduction

Papal supremacy is defined as the doctrine that the bishop of Rome holds complete power over church doctrine and management. This is as compared to the doctrine of papal primacy in the Orthodox churches (the belief that the pope is equal to any other patriarch) or the Protestant view that the pope should hold no weight over doctrinal matters. If papal supremacy is true, that means therefore the Roman Catholic church is true since all official Roman Catholic teachings were affirmed by various popes. All denominations would generally agree that their view over papal supremacy was believed by at least the apostles, if not the early church (1 st-3rd century). If it can be proven that the apostles believed in papal supremacy then the new testament was written by Catholics, and it raises the question of where they got that doctrine if not from Jesus (“He who hears you hears me, and he who rejects you rejects me, and he who rejects me rejects him who sent me” - Luke 10:16). If the early church fathers believed in papal supremacy then that raises the question of where they got that doctrine, if not from the apostles. Although heresy did exist in the first to third centuries, as proven by the existence of Gnosticism (no other known heresies existed at the time), Gnosticism was the result of outside Hellenistic influence and a minority of the church that believed in it. One could argue that the early church could simply misunderstand the Bible, but that would ruin the credibility of Christianity since the compilation of the Bible and the spreading of the Christian faith would therefore have been done by people who collectively misunderstood a very core aspect to Christianity. The new testament, while written by the apostles and their close associates, was ultimately compiled in the 300s, and one of the factors in compiling books of the new testament was if early Christian writers and the majority of Christian churches accepted those books. This therefore means that the validity of the Bible itself relies on the validity of the early church. Furthermore, God gives humanity free will to be Christian and/or believe whatever they want, but how can that free will exist if all of Christianity was completely wrong for such a long and foundational period of time? The entire religion would have no leg to stand on. This is why God frequently interacted with the Israelites in the old testament. This heuristic therefore concludes with saying that the question of whether Catholicism is true or not rests on the basis of whether the early church believed in papal supremacy, which I will prove in this essay by establishing that: 1. Christ established an apostolic church 2. The papacy is at the core of the church I will also add final chapters further rebuking any other arguments made attacking papal supremacy.

Christ established an apostolic church

While there are a few non-Catholic churches that would agree with this (Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Anglican, etc), this is mainly directed towards ‘low-church Protestantism’, and as an introduction to the next chapter. Even thought ‘higher-church Protestants’ may believe that Christ established a church, they of course believe in sola scriptura and therefore don’t believe that a church would be necessary to interpret scripture. Protestant churches are more or less pastoral communities. However, contrary to this narrative, Christ clearly did establish a church, and this church had doctrinal authority. As seen in the following verses:
Jesus replied, “Blessed are you, Simon son of Jonah, for this was not revealed to you by flesh and blood, but by my Father in heaven. And I tell you that you are Peter, and on this rock I will build my church, and the gates of Hades will not overcome it. I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven; whatever you bind on earth will be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth will be loosed in heaven”. - Matthew 16:17-19 Now you are Christ’s body, and individually members of it. And God has appointed in the church, first apostles, second prophets, third teachers, then miracles, then gifts of healings, helps, administrations, various kinds of tongues. - 1 Corinthians 12:27-28 He is also head of the body, the church; and He is the beginning, the firstborn from the dead, so that He Himself will come to have first place in everything. - Colossians 1:18 I hope to come to you soon, but I am writing these instructions to you so that, if I am delayed, you may know how one ought to behave in the household of God, which is the church of the living God, the pillar and bulwark of the truth. - 1 Timothy 3:14-15 As they went on their way through the cities, they delivered to them for observance the decisions which had been reached by the apostles and elders who were at Jerusalem. So the churches were strengthened in the faith, and they increased in numbers daily. - Acts 16:4-5 Remember your leaders, those who spoke to you the word of God; consider the outcome of their life, and imitate their faith. . . . Obey your leaders and submit to them; for they are keeping watch over your souls, as men who will have to give account. Let them do this joyfully, and not sadly, for that would be of no advantage to you - Hebrews 13:7, 17) “For,” said Peter, “it is written in the Book of Psalms: ‘May his place be deserted; let there be no one to dwell in it,’ and, ‘May another take his place of leadership.’ Therefore it is necessary to choose one of the men who have been with us the whole time the Lord Jesus was living among us... to take over this apostolic ministry, which Judas left to go where he belongs.” ... Then they cast lots, and the lot fell to Matthias; so he was added to the eleven apostles. - Acts 1:20-26 NOTE: The words “his place of leadership” are derived from a form of the Greek word ‘episcope’ used in the original writing, or bishopric in English For this reason I remind you to fan into flame the gift of God, which is in you through the laying on of my hands. - 2 Timothy 1:6 But how are men to call upon him in whom they have not believed? And how are they to believe in him of whom they have never heard? And how are they to hear without a preacher? And how can men preach unless they are sent? - Romans 10:14-15 NOTE: The word for ‘sent’ being used here was in the original Greek letter ‘apostalosin’, meaning in this context one sent with apostolic orders
Furthermore, the entirety of Acts 15 proves that deferring to the church for authority on teachings is based in scripture. But even besides all of that, I would add more verses but these alone are proof that: 1. Christ established an apostolic church meant to reign forever 2. This church is the church of Christ and the “pillar and bulwark of the truth” 3. The church was meant to continue using direct apostolic succession But I will however add the following excerpts from the writing of not just early church fathers, but the followers of the apostles themselves, that further prove these points:
Therefore it is clear that we must regard the bishop as the Lord Himself. ... Be ye subject to the bishop, and to one another, as Jesus Christ to the Father, according to the flesh, and the apostles to Christ, and to the Father, and to the Spirit; that so there may be a union both fleshly and spiritual. - Epistle to the Magnesians by Ignatius of Antioch (110-117 AD) As therefore the Lord did nothing without the Father, being united to Him, neither by Himself nor by the apostles, so neither do ye anything without the bishop and presbyters. Neither endeavour that anything appear reasonable and proper to yourselves apart; but being come together into the same place, let there be one prayer, one supplication, one mind, one hope, in love and in joy undefiled. - Epistle to the Magnesians by Ignatius of Antioch (110-117 AD) See that you all follow the bishop, even as Jesus Christ does the Father, and the presbytery as you would the apostles; and reverence the deacons, as being the institution of God. Let no man do anything connected with the Church without the bishop. Let that be deemed a proper Eucharist, which is [administered] either by the bishop, or by one to whom he has entrusted it. Wherever the bishop shall appear, there let the multitude [of the people] also be; even as, wherever Jesus Christ is, there is the Catholic Church. - Chapter 8, Letter to the Smyrnaeans by Ignatius of Antioch (110 AD) For Jesus Christ, our inseparable life, is the will of the Father, just as the bishops, who have been appointed throughout the world, are the will of Jesus Christ. - Chapter 3, Letter to the Ephesians by Ignatius of Antioch (110 AD) Our apostles also knew, through our Lord Jesus Christ, that there would be strife on account of the office of the episcopate. For this reason, therefore... they appointed those [ministers] already mentioned, and afterwards gave instructions, that when these should fall asleep, other approved men should succeed them in their ministry. - Chapter 44, 1st epistle of Clement of Rome (96 AD) Polycarp also was not only instructed by apostles, and conversed with many who had seen Christ, but was also, by apostles in Asia, appointed bishop of the Church in Smyrna, whom I also saw in my early youth, for he tarried [on earth] a very long time, and, when a very old man, gloriously and most nobly suffering martyrdom, departed this life, having always taught the things which he had learned from the apostles, and which the Church has handed down, and which alone are true. - Letter to the Philippians by Polycarp of Smyrna (via Irenaus of Lyons’ testimony in Chapter 3, Book III of Against Heresies)
It has been gathered beyond a shadow of a doubt that indeed, Christ established an apostolic church. And not just a church as in the general body of Christians, made up of tens of thousands of different organizations as some Protestants have argued, but of a singular institution. But there are probably over 100 different churches with claims to apostolic succession, so like I mentioned at the start of this chapter, this in and of itself is simply meant to lay the foundation made for the claims in the next chapter.

The papacy is at the core of the church

Simon Peter answered, “You are the Messiah, the Son of the living God.” “Good for you, Simon son of John!” answered Jesus. “For this truth did not come to you from any human being, but it was given to you directly by my Father in heaven. And so I tell you, Peter: you are a rock, and on this rock foundation I will build my church, and not even death will ever be able to overcome it. I will give you the keys of the Kingdom of heaven; what you prohibit on earth will be prohibited in heaven, and what you permit on earth will be permitted in heaven.” Then Jesus ordered his disciples not to tell anyone that he was the Messiah. - Matthew 16:16-19
Jesus seems to use very clear words here for Peter and his bishopric as having supremacy over the church, however Protestant and Orthodox apologists do have objections to this claim, however as I established in the introduction; if the entirety of the early church seemed to agree on a huge issue, then it should be considered true. It’s also worth noting that every particular objection I have seen has been answered roughly thousands of times by Catholic apologists so it would be unoriginal for me to type out those rebuttals. Because of that I will point out the following excerpts from the church in the 1st to 3rd centuries that view the church as having supremacy, often because of Matthew 16:16-19:
It is within the power of all, therefore, in every Church, who may wish to see the truth, to contemplate clearly the tradition of the apostles manifested throughout the whole world; and we are in a position to reckon up those who were by the apostles instituted bishops in the Churches, and [to demonstrate] the succession of these men to our own times... For example, the Church founded and organized at Rome by the two most glorious apostles, Peter and Paul... has handed down the tradition to us through the succession of its bishops. - Chapter 3, Book III of Against Heresies by Irenaus of Lyons (180 AD) Since, however, it would be very tedious, in such a volume as this, to reckon up the successions of all the Churches, we do put to confusion all those who... assemble in unauthorized meetings; [we do this, I say,] by indicating that tradition derived from the apostles, of the very great, the very ancient, and universally known Church founded and organized at Rome by the two most glorious apostles, Peter and Paul... and by pointing out the faith preached to men, which comes down to our time by means of the successions of the bishops.” - Chapter 4, Book III of Against Heresies by Irenaus of Lyons (180 AD) Was anything withheld from the knowledge of Peter, who is called ‘the rock on which the Church should be built,’ who also obtained ‘the keys of the kingdom of heaven,’ with the power of ‘loosing and binding in heaven and on earth’? ... Christ Himself delivered to the apostles, and they to the Churches, the tradition of the truth. - Chapter 20, Prescription Against Heretics by Tertullian (200 AD) If you are near Italy, you have Rome, where authority is at hand for us. How happy is that Church, on which apostles poured forth all their doctrine along with their blood! ... Let them produce the original records of their churches; let them unfold the roll of their bishops, running down in due succession from the beginning in such a manner that [their first bishop] shall be able to show for his ordainer and predecessor some one of the apostles or of apostolic men. - Chapter 21, Prescription Against Heretics by Tertullian (200 AD) And again He says to him [Peter] after His resurrection: 'Feed my sheep' (John 21:17). On him He builds the Church, and to him He gives the command to feed the sheep; and although He assigns a like power to all the Apostles, yet He founded a single chair, and He established by His own authority a source and an intrinsic reason for that unity. Indeed, the others were that also which Peter was; but a primacy is given to Peter, whereby it is made clear that there is but one Church and one chair. So too, all our shepherds, and the flock is shown to be one, fed by all the Apostles in single-minded accord. If someone does not hold fast to this unity of Peter, can he imagine that he still holds the faith? If he desert the chair of Peter upon whom the Church was built, can he still be confident that his is in the Church?" - Section 4, On the Unity of the Church by Cyprian of Carthage (250 AD) The Church of God which sojourns at Rome, to the Church of God sojourning at Corinth... If anyone disobey the things which have been said by Him [Christ] through us, let them know that they will involve themselves in transgression and in no small danger." - 1st epistle of Clement of Rome, 1:1, 59:1 (est. to have been made some time before 70 AD) You cannot deny that you know that in the city of Rome the episcopal chair was first conferred on Peter, the head of the apostles, and that chair is held in unity with all the churches, so that he who breaks this unity is ashamed by his own conscience. - Section 2, Book II, Against the Donatists by Optatus of Milevis (367 AD) The holy Roman Church has been placed at the forefront not by the conciliar decisions of other churches, but has received the primacy by the evangelic voice of our Lord and Savior, who says: ‘You are Peter, and upon this rock I will build my Church...’ The first see, therefore, is that of Peter the Apostle, that of the Roman Church. - Decree of the council of Rome by Pope Damascus I (382 AD)
There is also a decision made by Pope Victor I in 192 AD, wherein he excommunicated the Asian churches. There were many bishops critical of this decision yet no one challenges his authority to do so. To add to this mountain of citations, I will point out the following two instances in the bible in which Peter has an unique overriding authority over the other apostles: Based on all of this, papal supremacy is clearly believed heavily in the early church. The arguments against Matthew 16:16-19 being proof of papal supremacy seem to assume that the early church wouldn’t have believed this to be the case, when it clearly did.

Response to a potential counter-argument

As I have mentioned, the narrative of this document relies entirely on the belief (which I argued for in the introduction) that if nearly the entirety of the early church believed in one very large claim, it should be considered true. I noticed that one could possibly argue that my citations of early church epistles do not necessarily negate the possibility that some did not believe in the claim they argued, since it could be possible for a few church fathers to be wrong. Yet, throughout researching these epistles I have noticed that the early church seemed to have spent most of it’s time on combating heresy. If such a large supposed heresy were to have seeped into the beliefs of the most influential members of the church, am I supposed to believe that no one would have ever even publicly disagreed with papal supremacy? That is entirely preposterous.

Why Christ established the papacy

I commonly see Protestants and Orthodox Christians attack the papacy on the grounds that it would be ridiculous for one human to have complete power over Christian doctrine. Yet researching the Old Testament where God had previously ordained given the gospel to people shows that God actually does prefer this system of governance. For example with the house of David, with which strong comparisons have been made to the Catholic church, especially since Matthew 16:19 seems to be an explicit reference to Isaiah 22:22 (which documented the establishment of the kingdom of David):
I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven; whatever you bind on earth will be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth will be loosed in heaven. - Matthew 16:19 I will place on his shoulder the key to the house of David; what he opens no one can shut, and what he shuts no one can open. - Isaiah 22:22
Christ calls himself “the king of the Jews” in a metaphorical and spiritual sense, whereas King David was of course king of the Jews in a literal, materialistic sense. Peter takes the role which the high priest (Zadok) had in the house of David, while the other 11 apostles take the roles of the 11 other elders (Zekenim) of the Great Assembly. The 120 believers mentioned in Acts 1:15-28 take on the roles of the 120 men of the Great Assembly (Knesset HaGadolah). Based on this it can be seen that this structure is very much familiar to God. This is further explained in John 21:15-18, wherein Jesus asks Peter to “feed his sheep”. Christ is called “The good shepherd” in John 10:11, and in John 21:15-18 Christ says that the metaphorical sheep are his, but is asking Peter to tend to them. He assigned an earthly ministry to take care of them while Christ is in heaven. This is why the “churches” that lack this ministry do not work as Christ intended them to. Protestantism is fractured into tens of thousands of denominations when the bible says that Christians should be united (John 17:20-23, 1 Corinthians 1:10, Ephesians 4:3-6). Orthodoxy, besides not only being very fractured (though perhaps not to the extent that Protestantism is) is not able to be “the pillar and bulwark of truth”, they of their own admission are not able to have an ecumenical council without an emperor reigning over all Orthodox territory or having a pope. This has serious ramifications, since they in effect are now simply pastoral communities with apostolic succession. If Christ wanted his church to no longer be able to continue to understand the gospel conveniently after the fall of the Byzantine empire, he could have just clarified to the apostles every teaching they would need to settle on and they wouldn’t have to be a pillar and bulwark of truth anyways. Schismatic/heretic ecclesial communities like the Protestant and Orthodox churches require their members to have to fully understand the entire bible for them to be saved.
He writes the same way in all his letters, speaking in them of these matters. His letters contain some things that are hard to understand, which ignorant and unstable people distort, as they do the other Scriptures, to their own destruction. - 2 Peter 3:16
This is compared to the Catholic church, within it the only disturbances to this effect were very temporary. Thanks to God it has overcome all adversaries (even at times when it was it’s own adversary) and uniquely preserved itself and its teachings for two millennia.